Annotated Bibliography

Black Farmers in America

The end of slavery was followed by 100 years of racial discrimination in the South that limited, although it did not entirely prevent, opportunities for black farmers to acquire land.
Black Farmers in America, 1865-2000 The Pursuit of Independent Farming and the Role of Cooperatives, provides some insight into the struggles of black framers. Black farmers in the South had a long and grueling struggle to own land in order to make a living for their family. For more than a 100 years after the Civil War, numerous social and economic barricades were put in place to help maintain a system where blacks worked as operators of farmers but gained no true opportunity to achieve ownership no matter how much work they put in. Many black farm workers were forced into a never-ending cycle of crop liens from either landowners or merchants. Peonage replaced slavery and many blacks were free in name only. Over time, some blacks would be granted land with the help of the government, but Andrew Jackson would eventually eliminate the program. The stroke of the pen once again decimating the dream of freed blacks to own land and make a living for their families.
After the end of slavery, most blacks did not have an education, they had spent most of their lives laboring for free. The only type of work most of them knew was farming. So farming became the main farming way most blacks made a living. Black Farmers in America, 1865-2000 The Pursuit of Independent Farming and the Role of Cooperatives, explains how the Freedman’s worked to try and create fairness in farming contracts and treatment of blacks, but the idea of blacks being property was deeply ingrained in the southern culture. White people were intimated by the idea of blacks becoming economically independent and the addition of competition. Without free and forced labor, white farm owners did not produce as much as they once did. So many blacks started to leave the South to look for better opportunities.
I find it fascinating that both of my grandparents lived in the same state in the South and migrated to the same state and city in the West. My family left the southern states in search of a better life, not just economic prosperity, but to find a home where they could gain respect and free themselves from the weight of being treated as an inferior human.
Questions
If the government had created a plan to help freed blacks transition, would blacks have fled Southern states?
How was my family impacted by Jim Crow laws?
I wonder if any of my family members were sharecroppers?
Why some blacks were able to obtain land while others were forced into peonage situations?
Reynolds, Bruce J.
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Wartime Shipyard
Shipyard work during the war caused a sudden need for large quantities of labor. The propaganda to lure workers from all corners of the land was effective.” The bait was good: The wages offered were high, and the climate was a well-advertised bonus.” The wartime work promised a new life many people, not just blacks, but immigrants from other countries and women. Shipyard work easily appealed to those who were uneducated, unskilled but use to hard work. This was especially true to Southern blacks who had migrated to California. The population of blacks moving from the cotton and tobacco fields of the South to the West coast grew rapidly, from 1941 to 1924 fifty thousand blacks would arrive in the West coast.
As World War II began, defense spending skyrocketed on the West Coast. The government was awarding millions of dollars in contracts, in addition to shipyards, the auto, steel and rubber industries grew and caused a need for more workers. Shipyard work brought blacks, whites, and immigrants together. The shipyards in the West employed thousands of works every shift. But, blacks still faced major discrimination. Many whites still distanced themselves from their black co-workers. White people also felt it was their right to have a foothold on earning a living and taking care of their families over any other race. White supervisors made working conditions harder for black workers. Unions blocked black workers from joining. It was a common belief amongst whites that black people were trying to eliminate them from jobs. Blacks from the South sadly used to prejudice and discrimination. Many of the pressed on through harsh conditions because the pull of the West promised a better life.
The lure of workers positively impacted small business, housing, and entertainment industry. Workers from all backgrounds quickly found a new life and common fellowship. Some black people were able to buy their first home, they naturally flocked to areas where they felt welcomed, areas that allowed the escape the constant jabbing of discrimination and the pressure of social injustice. The defense industry opened opportunities that blacks never had in the South. Many learned new skills, that would later afford them opportunities in other industries. My great great grandmother moved to Richmond, California in 1941, she and her family left the agriculture life she had only known in Arkansas for a chance at prosperity. She took a job in a shipyard in Oakland, California. She was one of the thousands of women known as Rosie the Riveter.
Archibald, Katherine.
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Black California
Black California details Black history from the Age of Exploration to the end of the 20th century. The focus of the book is the social position of blacks after slavery detailing the struggles faced by Blacks in the west where Whites saw racism as a Southern problem. Western White believed that they were a part of the pioneers of equality, but still insisted separate schools, neighborhoods and public spaces, the notion of Separate but equal ingrained in every aspect of society. Blacks attended different schools even after the ruling of Brown v Board of Education. Whites felt that schools, while separate, Black schools were equal in quality to their own negating the need to integrate. Banks did not approve loans for Black seeking housing in white neighborhoods, banks and realtors lobbied for the appeal of the Housing Act enabling them to legally deny people based on race. On college campuses where it was not legal to segregate, Black students report faculty losing housing registration and not having more housing available. The social struggles of Blacks in California were comparable to the way they were treated in the South; the mentality of Black during this time is reflected in the personality of my grandparents.
Both of my grandparents spent most of their lives in California; they lived through the hardships Blacks faced before the Civil Rights movement and witnessing the slow acceptance Blacks faced while trying to integrate into society. Blacks during this time fought to free themselves from the image given to their ancestors who worked as slaves during the founding of this nation; Blacks wanted to be equal to all other races in America no longer Negro but Black. The shift from this derogatory nomenclature was the symbolic separation Black needed to be able to feel like they were a part of their society not an unwanted result of a time people preferred not to think about, but not all Blacks feel included even today; I remember my grandmother asking why she was considered African American even though she has never been to Africa nor does she have family there; she wants to be called Black. She is a “Black American”. The effects of pre-Civil Rights on Black Boomers will be ingrained in their thinking for as long as they live, but how has their personality changed from then until now?
Black California has made me wonder if the post-Civil Right treatment of Blacks has changed the way my Grandparents view themselves in society; do they feel they are full members of society or just as outcast as they were before?
Wheeler, B. Gordon.
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The Second Great Emancipation
The Second Great Migration was the movement of Blacks from the South to the North and East where they believed they would have better social and economic conditions. The industrialization of the South was the biggest cause of this migration, farmers were able to produce a higher crop yield with fewer workers and Black sharecroppers were the first to be laid off. Due to the social stigma Blacks had in the South at the time because of Jim Crow laws and lack of education, factories refuse to hire them leading to mass unemployment and increased poverty rates. Blacks began to move in search of a better life in North and West where industry fueled the economy and Blacks were supposed to have opportunities.
The Jones left Arkansas in the 1940’s after the death of my great-great-grandfather; Bessie Mae moved her and her children to California looking for work and opportunity. She arrived in California with nothing; Bessie Mae found work in the Richmond shipyards to provide for her family until she meets her second husband who also worked in a shipyard and changed occupations to a housekeeper until her death.
The promise of social and economic pulled Blacks out of the South, they dreamed of a place that they would be able to live as real members of society, free from Jim Crow laws, lack of education and poverty.
Holley, Donald.
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History of Illegal Drugs in America
Drugs ravaged the poverty-stricken Black communities of the North and West during the 60’s and 70’s hindering the fight for social and economic equality. Marijuana, Crack, Meth were all sold by Blacks to the people in these communities, leading to high crime rates, theft, violence. The results of the declining social order brought about by drugs led to a generation of Blacks that were just as under-educated and impoverished as they were before civil rights. The negative stigma Blacks fought to free themselves from had resurfaced.

My grandparents are a part of the generation that grew up with drugs ruling their communities, my grandfather would fall victim to them until he joined the military at eighteen. He would spend all his teenage years surrounded by drugs and crime, living in crack houses and stealing cars to fund his addiction. He tells us stories about his past to teach us what not to do, caving to societal pressures and taking pride in honest work.

The presence of drugs in Black communities led to the regression of Black integration into society. The source tells that the military was the most popular way for Black males to escape the hardships of their communities. My grandfather enlisted in the military when he was 17 as an alternative to prison completely, changing the course of his life. How did the lack of opportunity hinder Black Integration?
Holley, Donald.
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Adolescent and the struggle for Civil Rights
By the 1950s, Black people began to organize against discrimination. “ Civil rights groups demanded an end to segregation. They fought for equality in education, housing, and employment opportunities, and they made some headway.” The civil rights struggle came from and center for blacks in California. Many black families were on their second generation, these children and young adults did not know the harsh abuse of the South. They did, however, know the pains of discrimination, the hateful treatment by white people and the segregation of schools. 1963, was another major turning point for black in California, Los Angeles would be torn down from what is now known as the Watts Riots. The build of anger over police brutality turned into weeks of rioting and destruction. For years the Civil Rights fight had tried to remain peaceful through the leadership of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. But after his assassination on April 6, 1968, and the ongoing pressures of the draft because of the Vietnam War, black people were starting to become restless, angry. This relentless help spawned the Revolution – Black Power. Unlike Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr, the Black Panther Party believed in self-defense. Many black youths were drawn to the more aggressive style of protest.

The Civil Rights Act helped give a voice to millions of oppressed black people. Discrimination during those times knew no boundaries, black people from the North, South, East, and West, felt the staggering oppression. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. gave hope to many. He told black children they had every right to a good education and social prosperity as any white child. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned discrimination and segregation on the basis of race, religion, national origin and gender in the workplace, schools, public accommodations and in federally assisted programs. These positive changes made some headway for black people, but white people were not ready to relinquish the hate. My grandparents’ youth was shaped by the turbulent times of the Civil Rights fighting Era. My grandmother would desire to become a black panther. My grandfather was sent to the Vietnam War when he was 18.
Holley, Donald.
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Bloods: An oral history of the Vietnam war by Black Veterans
The quote, “I have an intuitive feeling that the Negro servicemen have a better understanding than whites of what the war is about,” by General William C. Westmoreland that prefaces the introduction of Bloods foreshadows the insights the that the reader is going to receive for reading the accounts of these black Vietnam servicemen; each chapter is told by a different veteran, but they share a common tone of sorrow as the soldiers recount their experience in Vietnam. The soldiers detail the ‘shoot first ask questions later” approach of the US military while in Vietnam leading to an estimated two to one ratio of civilian to Vietnamese and Vietcong fatalities. Many of the soldiers said the war felt like a combat exercise, an outlet for the tension soldiers felt after Korea; Private First Class Reginald “Malik” Edward believed the US could have proceeded to invade China if the US had taken the war seriously. The Black soldiers that recount their stories in this book all felt the war was not to free Vietnam, but they continued to fight not for the ideals publicized by the United States, but because it was the only way for them to escape their poverty riddled communities.
My grandfather was in the Army during the Vietnam War stationed in Germany but trying to transfer to the front. He enlisted as an alternative to going to jail and to escape the poverty of Richmond, California. Before completing his transfer request, he was persuaded to not to be a Black superior officer, “You are your mother’s only child and they are killing us over there,” Blacks made up 23 percent of the US fatalities and occupied a large portion of the lower ranks. In addition to the Vietnamese soldiers and Vietcong, US soldiers also faced the dangers of the Rainbow Herbicide program that caused cancer in soldiers that were in contact with it and other US Soldiers that were mistaken for the enemy. The chances of a Black seventeen-year-old male full of the propaganda and rumors of glory on the front lines making it back were slim to none.
Bloods has made me wonder if the Black community had any universal feelings about the war, or did they distance themselves from the responsibility for what happened because they thought of it as the only way out of their current situation. Were Black communities concerned with the world that did not directly affect their communities?
Wallace Terry
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The 1960’s brought about a lot of change to California. The hippie movement was forming; People’s park in California was born from the activist movement. California was supposing welcoming to all, a bit of a melting pot. But that was not the full picture. California like all other states during this time had its share of discriminatory policies from employment to housing, also known as redlining. These practices set the stage to ensure business did not open in the Black neighborhood, perpetuating the cause of unemployment. Systematic inequality helped to create a constant state of suffering that can be felt to this day. Many black people men and some women dealt with pressure by using alcohol and other substance. This left many black homes broken home. According to Drinking Patterns and Problems Among African-Americans: Recent Findings, RHONDA JONES-WEBB, DR. P.H., African-Americans report lower rates of alcohol use, but face more challenges to getting help and faced more issues in their life, for example, financial difficulties, troubled family, work-related and legal issues.
My grandfather started drinking and using drugs when he was around 15 years old. His was in turmoil for almost 40 years. My grandfather, a former drug addict, and alcoholic went from homeless to the patriarch.
When I was born, my grandfather promised to get clean after decades of drug and alcohol abuse. He stopped using, cold turkey. He attempted to live a normal life, but for him, “normal” meant periods of heavy drinking, rash actions and impulsive decisions. This rollercoaster continued for years, but through all of it, I knew deep down he desired to be sober. He often talked about how he wanted to be alive to see me graduate and how drinking and using drugs would make that impossible. He talked to me about the mistakes he made in his life and how mistakes happen, but they do not define or determine the rest of your life.
Through my grandfather’s raw stories; I have come to realize, I have not had a true test of adversity, yes, I’ve struggled with schoolwork, I’ve had to deal with teenage angsts that for some my age may seem like the end of the world, but I have witnessed a man go through real struggles- alcohol, homelessness, and loss of family. My problems are not necessarily minor, but I have learned a sense of perspective. My grandfather has taught me that failures will happen, things will not always go my way and sometimes life just hits you in the face. But, keep going. He openly shares his stories of being lost to teach me how to become a better man.
Black people, statistically, do not drink as much as other races. But, why do they have more troubles at work and with their families?
Mental Health
Mental health is a concern for my family, my aunt suffers from depression and my grandfather suffers from depression and dementia, both sought treatment for their respective mental ailments my aunt was diagnosed in her early life; my grandfather, due to his alcoholism, did not get diagnosed until he was in his 50’s. The mental health problems in black communities are masked by other social and health problems that have more visible symptoms.
Mental health in Black communities is a massive rarely spoken of problem that affects a variety of individuals. Blacks are 20 percent more likely to suffer serious mental health problems, major depression; ADHD; Suicide and PTSD, than the general population. Blacks are also more likely to experience physical factors that increase the risk of mental health problems such as; homelessness and exposure to violence that lead to anxiety especially among children. The lack of adequate is the byproduct of Black social status and traditions; one in four Blacks that need psychiatric help will receive it compared to the 40 percent of Whites. Blacks consistently turn to faith and family for emotional support due to a general lack of mental competence. Faith in traditionally ties Black communities together, but also can also lead to ignorance furthering the problems faced by Blacks due to their own inaction and mistrust of medical professionals.
Mental Health has made me wonder why Blacks, even today, have a distrust for doctors and prefer to rely on their faith in an attempt to heal their ailments. The lack of medical competence furthers the degradation of living conditions of Black communities; which in turn exacerbates mental health problems. The ability to access information easily should have started a shift in the way Blacks deal with mental health, but evidence proves otherwise.
Griffith, Ezra E. H., Billy E. Jones, and Altha Stewart. “The Origins of Black Mental Health.” Psychiatrics News, vol. 53, no. 20, 2018.
Food and Family
Food can be a way some people identify themselves. America is made up of millions of people and the Census recognizes about six racial categories. But, within the country, many ethnic groups have carved out their own identity through traditions and food. Food became a way of connecting and bringing comfort. Throughout time, food has been the pillar of many cultures. What we eat and how we cook it reflects our culture and ancestors. Slaves began the practice of taking scraps given to them by slave owners and turning them into meals that they shared with family and friends. Over the years the dishes have evolved into what is considered to as Soul Food, dishes such as, collard greens, corn bread, black-eyed peas, and sweet potatoes pies. These foods are part of traditions or some might say superstations, many African Americans eat hoppin’ John or rice and black-eyed peas on New Year’s Day for good luck in the upcoming year.

How it relates

Gatherings such as Sunday dinner and holidays have always been the time that our family comes together, but, not just family, friends and neighbors too. I quickly began to see that not only were we coming together over food, but we were also having fun, laughing and cooking. The food that we enjoyed, greens, cornbread, fried chicken, dressing and much more. Our family gatherings bring up so many memories. I remember learning how to first cook cornbread. My grandmother did not make us shy away from the kitchen just because we were boys. She would pull up a chair, have us crack eggs or stir the batter. This time also taught me patience, because cooking soul food can take all day! Cooking was also the time where all the world’s problems, I would listen to my grandmother, mother and sisters talk about a lot of different topics, some difficult and some small talk, but through it all, you would hear laughter and you see love. As I have grown up I understand now that it was not just about the preparation of the food, but the experience of being a family.

How some slaves made the best of such an awful situation?

How Soul Food differed from Southern Food?

How did Alex Haley come up the term soul food?

Why don’t more families share meals together?

Regular Health
Health issues in the Black community highlight a myriad of issues plaguing Black Americans. The diseases that many people are familiar with heart disease, stroke, and hypertension, but there are other deadly health issues that are not as well known, such as Fetal Alcohol syndrome, Sickle cell, Hepatitis C and depression.

“The death rate for Black people is approximately one and one-half times that of whites and black life expectancy is declining Health Issues in the black community (CITE). There seem to be numerous unfortunate factors, but let us briefly focus on just two health issues.

Is a major concern in the black communities and mostly impact Black males. Alcohol has contributed to the decline in life expectancy of black males. From 1951 to 1980 black males were excepted to die 5.6 years earlier than whites. It’s said that black males compensated for the pain and frustration of poverty, racism, and lack of opportunities. This disease led to the destruction of many families
Black people have a higher mortality rate than whites and other non-whites for a variety of cancers, such as oral, breast, esophagus, lung and prostate. There are complex contributing factors that have led doctors to believe that lifestyle, exposure to tobacco and a lack of resources are main contributors to black dying because of certain cancers.

My grandparents have born witness to the impact of health issues plaguing the Black community. My grandmother is 65 years old and the oldest living person on her side of her family. Her mother and sister died of Leukemia, both of her brothers died from cancer, her sister died of heart disease and a nephew to Sickle Cell. The sad truth is my grandmother has developed some of the same common health issues – diabetes and high cholesterol. My mother and her siblings continue to try to educate my grandmother on her health issues and find her better preventative care. My grandfather is now 10 years sober; he started drinking and doing drugs as a teenager. His drug use increased after he returned from the Vietnam War. He suffered for years, there were no treatment centers in his city when he returned from the war and like most black veteran’s he suffered alone.

The New Black Middle Class
I currently live in what is considered a Middle-class neighborhood, surrounded by a multitude of other ethnicity and in one of the best public school districts in Georgia, but most Blacks are apart of the working class with a Household yearly income of 32500; 20000 dollars less than the average of the rest of the country. Blacks make up a vast majority of the lower class partially due to some self-destructive tendencies, but also social pressures and oppression that was widespread just three generations ago.

Wealth has shifted for the middle and lower class form dollar amounts to Equity most in housing, but housing discrimination leads to a disproportionate amount of Blacks living in homes that did not match their income level. Blacks were denied loans in traditionally White neighborhoods regardless of their ability to afford the house or not. Not being able to buy a home left Blacks at the mercy of landlords and constantly facing homelessness and poverty. Living in struggling urban areas exacerbated the negative connotation Whites had of Blacks, these areas had high crime rates and middle-class Blacks were more likely to participate in these crimes even if they were financially better off those living around them.

In these struggling urban areas, access to adequate education was almost impossible; schools received little funding and teachers were under qualified; mandated standardized testing provides evidence for the discontinuation of funds to these schools due to low test scores. The perpetual decline in funding only hastened the decline of schools.

These low-income neighborhoods are where my parents grew up, my mother in Richmond, California and my step-father in Providence Rhode Island. They went to school in underperforming areas and witnessed the very social pressures that caused the collapse of the Black Middle Class. Their friends and family continue to suffer as a result of their lack of education, but my parents made the most of what they had; attended college and got degrees in order to free themselves from the hardships of their childhood, they broke the cycle allowing them to have a family of their own and raise them in one of the best school systems in Georgia.